Book of Incense

Ancient Aromas

Mankind has used incense, in its earliest forms, since the dawn of human history. With the discovery of fire, our ancestors would have realized that most materials give off a unique and sometimes powerful aroma when burnt. The difference between the smell of a handful of Parsley and that of a Pine tree branch is greatly emphasized when each is burnt. Then as now, the air is quickly filled with intoxicating aromas simply by throwing some dried leaves, spices or twigs into a fire.

There is historic evidence in most cultures that our ancestors used incense burning for sacred and healing purposes. From ancient times people recognized that aromas produced by burning materials could heighten the senses, both sight and smell. When early man gathered around his fire, the smell of aromatic woods, herbs and leaves carried by heaven-wards spirals of smoke was a rare sensory pleasure. From this discovery it was no doubt a short step to dedicating fragrant products to the Gods, by adding them to a fire, which would also carry the good wishes and prayers of men upwards on the heat of the flames. Other benefits ascribed to the burning of incense included the purification of an area, to change a mood (to facilitate meditation or religious practices) and to cleanse and disinfect living spaces, especially after pollution caused by, for instance, death or illness.

The Rise of Incense and The "Frankincense Trail"

Several thousands of years before the advent of Christianity, the plants, herbs and spices that produced the best incense were traded as highly desirable commodities. For many years Frankincense from the Arabian peninsula was actually a more valuable currency than gold or silver. In almost every religion, aromatic oils, leaves and powders were considered a gift from the Gods, symbolic of divine grace. Frankincense was used in vast quantities by the ancient Egyptians, Persians and Assyrians, and via them, by the Romans, who would have learned of its use when coming into contact with eastern nations.

The significance of the belief that the three wise men brought Gold, Frankincense and Myrrh to the infant Jesus was both the princely nature of the gifts and their symbolic significance. Frankincense was a costly gift literally "fit for a king," while Bitter Myrrh referred to the bittersweet fate awaiting the messiah.

The trade in Frankincense flourished for centuries, particularly in the Arabian peninsula area of Oman, and its use can be traced back to the reign of the Queen of Sheba, who reigned over the Hadramut Kingdom which included Oman. The Frankincense trade flourished for fifteen hundred years, peaking at the height of the Roman Empire. The trade only declined due to reduced demand after the fall of the Roman Empire and also because of the exorbitant taxes levied along the strictly controlled trade routes.

The Parallel History of Smudging

The idea of purification through smoke is certainly not the sole preserve of the world to the east of the Atlantic. The Native North Americans have also burned herbal smoke mixtures in ceremonial cleansing and healing rituals for thousands of years. Smudging (the common name given to the sacred smoke bowl blessing) has been a part of Native American tradition since ancient times.

As with its Eastern counterparts, the "smudging" or burning of herbs and resins was and continues to be a practice held literally sacred by many traditional cultures. Smudging takes many forms; herbs are either tied into bundles called "smudge sticks," or the longer, tendril like herbs may be braided into "ropes." Smudging calls on the spirits of sacred plants to drive away negative energies and restore balance. The most popular herbs and plants for smudging include Cedar, Sage, Sweetgrass and Tobacco. Each of these plants is imbued with a unique quality and specific energy and as such are known as "Sacred Plant Helpers." Their smoke is ceremonially fanned through the energy field (aura) to cleanse negative energies, heal, bless and attract positive forces.

Smudging continues to this day as an integral part of Native American purification rituals. All spaces and the tools used for healings must be smudged, and smudging is an integral part of other important ceremonies such as medicine wheel gatherings, the vision quest and sweat lodge.

Incense and Modern Religion

The use of incense in organized religion continues as a relevant and important aspect of several confirmed religions, being used to prepare the congregation for prayer and ritual. In the Roman Catholic and Eastern churches, incense is a sacramental, that is, "an action or object of ecclesiastical origin that serves to express or increase devotion" (Merriam Webster online dictionary).

The Roman Catholic Church has always recognized the value of rites and ceremonial observances, not only for increasing the solemnity of her services but for arousing a spirit of devotion in those who minister at them and those who attend them. For a period the use of incense was discontinued in the Western Church because of its close association with pagan worship, but it has always been used in the Eastern Church. The incense used today is powder or grains of resin or vegetable gums or other such substances which, when burned, give off a sweet smelling of smoke. It is interesting to note that the Roman Catholic church now shares a devotion to rituals involving incense with the increasing number of practicing pagans and wiccans, the very groups it sought to dissociate itself from.

The mystical meanings ascribed to incense by the church hardly differs from those of our ancestors. By its burning, incense symbolizes the zeal of the faithful, its sweet fragrance echoes the "odor of sanctity" believed to be exuded by saints and martyrs, and its rising smoke symbolizes the ascent of prayers to heaven. Also, incense creates a cloud, which is another symbol for godliness.

The Founder of Modern "Aromatherapy"

Incense has quite rightly been called the forefather of modern Aromatherapy, and its use as the earliest form of healing based on scent is undisputed. Today, there has been resurgence in the use of essential oils and the burning of incense as tools to employ the power of Aromatherapy, which is now recognized as being able, via the stimulation of the olfactory nerves, to produce physical, emotional and psychological effects independent of the thinking process.

As we smell scents, whether it be incense, fresh paint or sausage and mash(!), our mind is busy working on a subconscious level, deciding whether we like it and determining whether we recognize it. These responses are created in the limbic system, or more accurately, the information is sent via the nerves to the olfactory epithelium, which is part of the limbic system in the brain. Data is then transmitted to the conscious parts of the brain. The limbic system is the oldest and most primitive section of the brain. It stores information about every scent ever smelled, and provides responses and reactions to various stimuli. It is considered the seat of memory, and as such is a powerful mood affecter.

All smell is molecular. In other words, when we smell a scent, we are registering a physical molecule that disconnects itself from its carrier and drifts in the air, arriving through the nose to the mucous membrane which has millions of odor-receptor cells and cilia to catch and identify scent molecules in the air. Unlike our other four senses, the nerve system for smell is directly exposed to its source of stimulation. This explains the immediate, unthinking effect of scents on the nervous system. Scent can cause an instant and overwhelming reaction, either pleasant or unpleasant, in a way that no other sensation can.

In addition, our ability to learn and our capacity for sympathy are also located in the limbic system, hence the often close link that feelings of sympathy and antipathy often have with smells. The limbic system is also responsible for creativity, inspiration, and all non-thinking, automatic life processes such as heartbeat, hormone regulation and respiration. Scent can affect all of of these powerful bodily processes.

Coming full-circle - From Ancient Rituals to Modern Day Holism

The use of incense, and of essential oils in modern Aromatherapy, has validated the belief held by our ancient forefathers. Many of the reactions and decisions we make are intrinsically linked to our sense of smell, and many areas of our health and relaxation can be positively affected by smell, and by definition, through Aromatherapy. Incense can help to:

 - cleanse the atmosphere

 - aid calm and reduce anxiety, stress, and fear

 - revitalize, stimulate, and renew energy

 - alleviate insomnia

 - prepare the mind and body for prayer, meditation and contemplation

 - accelerate healing

Follow the example of the ancients, and allow the fragrant smoke from incense to cleanse your living space, relax your body, calm your mind, create a spiritual atmosphere and heighten your awareness.

A Brief History of Incense by Margaret McGoverne

Incense Religion

"GODS love fragrances." That was a common saying among ancient Egyptians. To them, the burning of incense was very much a part of their worship. In the belief that the gods were near, the Egyptians burned incense daily at their temples and household altars and even while engaging in business. Other nations had similar customs.

What is incense? The term can refer to the smoke or to the substance burned. It is made of aromatic resins and gums, such as frankincense and balsam. These are pounded into a powder and are often mixed with such substances as spices, tree bark, and flowers to create certain fragrances for specific applications.

Incense was such a desirable and thus valuable commodity in ancient times that its ingredients became important items of trade. Caravans following trade routes carried these from distant lands. You may recall that Jacob's young son Joseph was sold to Ishmaelite traders who were "coming from Gilead, and their camels were carrying labdanum and balsam and resinous bark, on their way to take it down to Egypt." (Genesis 37:25) The demand for incense became so great that the frankincense trade route, no doubt initiated by incense merchants, opened up travel between Asia and Europe.

Incense is still offered in the ceremonies and rituals of many religions today. Additionally, more and more people choose to burn incense in their homes simply to enjoy its pleasant aroma. How should Christians view incense-burning? Is it acceptable to God in worship? Let us examine what the Bible has to say on the matter.

"Something Holy to Jehovah"
Among the ancient Israelites, the burning of incense figured prominently in priestly duties at the tabernacle. McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia states: "Indeed, the burning of incense seems to have been considered among the Hebrews so much of an act of worship or sacred offering that we read not of any other use of incense than this among them."

Jehovah God prescribed four ingredients to be mixed and burned at the tabernacle: "Take to yourself perfumes: stacte drops and onycha and perfumed galbanum and pure frankincense. There should be the same portion of each. And you must make it into an incense, a spice mixture, the work of an ointment maker, salted, pure, something holy. And you must pound some of it into fine powder and put some of it before the Testimony in the tent of meeting." (Exodus 30:34-36) Scholars suggest that other ingredients were later added by the rabbinic Jews for temple use.

 Incense burned at the tabernacle and at the temple was sacred

Incense burned at the tabernacle was sacred, used exclusively in the worship of God. Jehovah commanded: "The incense that you will make with this composition, you must not make for yourselves. For you it is to continue as something holy to Jehovah. Whoever makes any like it to enjoy its smell must be cut off from his people." (Exodus 30:37, 38) Upon a designated altar, priests burned incense twice a day. (2 Chronicles 13:11) And on Atonement Day, the high priest burned incense in the Most Holy.—Leviticus 16:12, 13.

Not all incense offerings were acceptable to God. He punished nonpriests who presumptuously offered it as if they were priests. (Numbers 16:16-18, 35-40; 2 Chronicles 26:16-20) The incense offered by the Jewish nation was offensive to Jehovah when they were at the same time engaging in acts of false worship and filling their hands with bloodshed. Their hypocrisy led Jehovah to declare: "Incense—it is something detestable to me." (Isaiah 1:13, 15) The Israelites became so negligent in the prescribed worship of Jehovah that they closed the temple and burned incense on other altars. (2 Chronicles 28:24, 25) Years later the holy incense was even used in the depraved worship of false gods. Such practices were revolting to Jehovah.—Ezekiel 16:2, 17, 18.

Incense and the Early Christians
The Law covenant, including the priestly decree to offer holy incense, ended when Christ inaugurated the new covenant in 33 C.E. (Colossians 2:14) There is no record that early Christians burned incense for religious purposes. Regarding this, McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia says: "It is certain that incense was not used [by early Christians]. Indeed the use of it was a mark of paganism . . . A few grains of incense thrown by a devotee upon a pagan altar constituted an act of worship."

Early Christians also refused to burn incense to acknowledge the "divinity" of the Roman emperor, even though it could cost them their lives. (Luke 4:8; 1 Corinthians 10:14, 20) In view of the idolatrous use of incense in those days, it is not surprising that the early Christians would not even engage in the incense trade.

Incense-Burning Today
How is incense used today? In many churches of Christendom, incense is offered in ceremonies and liturgy. Among Asians, many families burn incense at temples or before household altars to honor their gods and safeguard the dead. In religious services, incense has been variously used to fumigate, heal, purify, and protect.

Incense has recently enjoyed a revival even among those not professing a religion. Some burn incense in connection with meditation. One guidebook suggests using incense to reach "subtle planes" and "energies" beyond the physical world. To find solutions to life's problems, it also recommends incense-burning rituals that involve contact with "supernatural beings." Are such practices for Christians?

 
Is the burning of incense in connection with meditation for Christians?
 
Jehovah roundly condemns those who try to blend false religious practices with pure worship. The apostle Paul quoted Isaiah's prophecy and applied it to Christians, urging them to keep free from the unclean influence of false religion. He wrote: "'Get out from among them, and separate yourselves,' says Jehovah, 'and quit touching the unclean thing'; 'and I will take you in.'" (2 Corinthians 6:17; Isaiah 52:11) True Christians take care to avoid anything that is connected with false worship or the occult. John 4:24.

Does the fact that incense is used in religious ceremonies and in spiritism mean that all incense-burning is wrong? Not necessarily. Perhaps a person wishes to burn incense as a fragrance in his home simply to enjoy its pleasant aroma. (Proverbs 27:9) Even so, in deciding whether to burn incense, a Christian should consider certain factors. Would others in the area where you live associate the use of incense with a false religious practice? In your community, is incense often associated with spiritistic rituals? Or is it commonly used for nonreligious purposes?

If an individual chooses to burn incense, his decision should take into consideration both his own conscience and the feelings of others. (1 Corinthians 10:29) The words of the apostle Paul to the Romans apply. He wrote: "Let us pursue the things making for peace and the things that are upbuilding to one another. Stop tearing down the work of God just for the sake of food. True, all things are clean, but it is injurious to the man who with an occasion for stumbling eats. It is well not to eat flesh or to drink wine or do anything over which your brother stumbles. Romans 14:19-21.

Prayers That Are "Prepared as Incense"
The offering of incense among the Israelites was a fitting symbol of prayers that are heard by God. Hence, the psalmist David sang to Jehovah: "May my prayer be prepared as incense before you. Psalm 141:2.

Faithful Israelites did not view the offering of incense as an empty ritual. They took great care to prepare and burn incense in the way prescribed by Jehovah. Instead of using literal incense, Christians today offer prayers that reflect deep appreciation and respect for our heavenly Father. Like the sweet-smelling incense offered by temple priests, God's Word assures us: "The prayer of the upright ones is a pleasure to him."—Proverbs 15:8.

Incense Types

Combustible base
 
Charcoal based cone incenseThe combustible base of a direct burning incense mixture not only binds the fragrant material together but also allows the produced incense to burn with a self-sustained ember, which propagates slowly and evenly through an entire piece of incense with such regularity that it can be used to mark time. The base is chosen such that it does not produce a perceptible smell. Commercially, two types of incense base predominate:

Fuel and oxidizer mixtures: Charcoal or wood powder forms the fuel for the combustion. Gums such as Gum Arabic or Gum Tragacanth are used to bind the mixture together while an oxidizer such as Sodium nitrate or Potassium nitrate sustains the burning of the incense. Fragrant materials are combined into the base prior to formation as in the case of powdered incense materials or after formation as in the case of essential oils. The formula for the charcoal based incense is superficially similar to black powder, though it lacks the sulfur.
Natural plant-based binders: Mucilaginous material, which can be derived from many botanical sources, is mixed with fragrant materials and water. The mucilage from the wet binding powder holds the fragrant material together while the cellulose in the powder combusts to form a stable ember when lit. The dry binding powder usually comprises about 10% of the dry weight in the finished incense. Makko (??·?? incense powder), made from the bark of the tabu-no-ki tree (Machilus thunbergii) (Jpn. ???; ????), is perhaps the best known source of natural plant-based binder. In India a resin based binder called Jigit is used. In Nepal, Tibet, and other East Asian countries a bark based powder called Laha or Dar is used.
[edit] Types
Incense is available in various forms and degrees of processing. They can generally be separated into direct burning and indirect burnings types depending on use. Preference for one form or another varies with culture, tradition, and personal taste.

[edit] Indirect burning
 
Indirect burning frankincense on a hot coalIndirect burning incense, also called non-combustible incense,[4] is simply a combination of aromatic ingredients not prepared in any particular way or encouraged into any particular form, leaving it mostly unsuitable for direct combustion. The use of this class of incense requires a separate heat source since it does not generally kindle a fire capable of burning itself and may not ignite at all under normal conditions. This incense can vary in the duration of its burning with the texture of the material. Finer ingredients tend to burn more rapidly, while coarsely ground or whole chunks may be consumed very gradually as they have less total surface area. The heat is traditionally provided by charcoal or glowing embers.

The best known incense materials of this type in the West, are frankincense and myrrh, likely due to their numerous mentions in the Christian Bible. In fact, the word for "frankincense" in many European languages also alludes to any form of incense.

Whole: The incense material is burned directly in its raw unprocessed form on top of coal embers.
Powdered or granulated: The incense material is broken down into finer bits. This incense burns quickly and provides a short period of intense smells.
Paste: The powdered or granulated incense material is mixed with a sticky and incombustible binder, such as dried fruit, honey, or a soft resin and then formed to balls or small cakes. These may then be allowed to mature in a controlled environment where the fragrances can commingle and unite. Much Arabian incense, also called Bukhoor or Bakhoor, is of this type, and Japan has a history of kneaded incense, called neriko or awaseko, using this method.[5] Within the Eastern Orthodox Christian tradition raw frankincense is ground into a fine powder and then mixed with various sweet smelling essential oils.
[edit] Direct burning
 
Incense coils hanging from the ceiling of an East Asian templeDirect burning incense also called 'combustible incense',[4] generally requires little preparation prior to its use. When lit directly by a flame (hence the appellation) and then fanned out, the glowing ember on the incense will continue to smolder and burn away the rest of the incense without continued application of heat or flame from an outside source. This class of incense is made from a moldable substrate of fragrant finely ground (or liquid) incense materials and odorless binder.[2] The composition must be adjusted to provide fragrance in the proper concentration and to ensure even burning. The following types of direct burning incense are commonly encountered, though the material itself can take virtually any form, according to expediency or whimsy:

Coil: Extruded and shaped into a coil without a core. This type of incense is able to burn for an extended period; from hours to days and is commonly produced and used by Chinese culture
Cone: Incense in this form burns relatively fast. Cone incense containing mugwort are used in Traditional Chinese medicine for moxibustion treatment.
Cored stick: This form of stick incense has a supporting core of bamboo. Higher quality varieties of this form have fragrant sandalwood cores. The core is coated by a thick layer of incense material that burns away with the core. This type of incense is commonly produced in India and China. When used for worship in Chinese folk religion, cored incensed sticks are sometimes known as Joss sticks.
Solid stick: This stick incense has no supporting core and is completely made of incense material. Easily broken into pieces, it allows one to determine the specific amount of incense they wish to burn. This is the most commonly produced form of incense in Japan and Tibet.
Incense blanks: This form is made of unscented dust and then immersed into any kind of essential or fragrance oil. It was made popular in American Flea markets by vendors who wanted their own style and often known as "dipped" or "Hand-dipped"
Loose powder: The incense powder used for making indirect burning incense is sometimes burned without further processing. They are typically packed into long trails on top of wood ash using a stencil and burned in special censers or incense clocks.
Rope: The incense powder is rolled into paper sheets, which are then rolled into ropes, twisted tightly, then doubled-over and twisted again, yielding a two-strand rope. The larger end is the bight, and may be stood vertically, in a shallow dish of sand or pebbles. The smaller (pointed) end is lit. This type of incense is highly transportable and stays fresh for excessively long periods of time. It has been used for centuries in Tibet and Nepal.
Direct burning incense of these forms is either extruded, pressed into forms, or coated onto a supporting material.

[edit] Production
 
Drying cored stick incense, VietnamAlthough the production of direct and indirect burning incense are both blended to produce a pleasant smell when burned, the two differ in their composition due to the former's requirement for even, stable, and sustained burning.

[edit] Indirect
Indirect burning incense does not have any stringent requirements except for achieving pleasant smell when lit. Mixture of incense materials can be combined by powdering the raw materials and then mixing together with a binder to form pastes, which are then cut and dried into pellets.

Incense of the Athonite Orthodox Christian tradition are made using similar methods by powdering frankincense or fir resin, mixing it with essential oils. Floral fragrances are the most common, but citrus such as lemon is not uncommon. The incense mixture is then rolled out into a slab approximately 1cm thick and left until the slab has firmed. It is then cut into small cubes, coated with powder clay to prevent adhesion, and allowed to fully harden and dry.[6][7] The product visually resemble cubes of Loukoum.

[edit] Direct
 
Poor quality cored incense. Note that the sticks are uneven in thickness and the supporting cores remain even after combustion of the incenseIt is quite the opposite for direct burning incense. On top of producing a pleasant scent when burnt, this type of incense must burn completely to a cool white ash with a stable ember. Ideally the incense should burn slowly and evenly with no trace of the supporting core after burning. In order to obtain these desired combustion qualities, attention has to be paid to certain proportions in direct burning incense mixtures:

Oil content: Resinous materials such as myrrh and frankincense must not exceed the amount of dry materials in the mixture to such a degree that the incense will not smolder and burn. The higher the oil content relative to the dry mass, the less likely the mixture is to burn effectively. Typically the resinous or oily substances are balanced with "dry" materials such as wood, bark and leaf powders.
Oxidizer quantity: The amount of chemical oxidizer in gum bound incense must be carefully proportioned. Too little, and the incense will not ignite, too much, and the incense will burn too quickly and not produce fragrant smoke.
Mixture density: Incense mixture made with natural binders must not be combined with too much water in mixing, or over-compressed while being formed. This either results in uneven air distribution or undesirable density in the mixture, which causes the incense to burn unevenly, too slowly, or too quickly.
Particulate size: The incense mixture has to be well pulverized with similar size of particulates. Uneven and large particulates will result in uneven burning and may smell inconsistent when burned.
Binder: Water soluble binders like makko (??·??) have to be used in the right proportion to ensure that the incense mixture does not crumble when dry but also that the binder does not take up too much of the mixture [2]
[edit] Compressed forms
The incense mixture can be extruded or pressed into shapes small quantities of water are combined with the fragrance and incense base mixture and kneaded into a hard dough. The incense dough is then pressed into shaped forms to create cone and smaller coiled incense, or forced through a hydraulic press for solid stick incense. The formed incense is then trimmed and slowly dried. Incense produced in this fashion has a tendency to warp or become misshapen when improperly dried, and as such must be placed in climate controlled rooms and rotated several times through the drying process.

[edit] Cored sticks
In the case of cored incensed sticks several methods are employed to coat the sticks cores with incense mixture:

Paste rolling: A wet malleable paste of incense mixture is first rolled using a paddle into a long thin coil. When this is done a thin stick is then put next to the coil and rolled together until the stick is center in the mixture and a correct thickness of the incense stick is achieved. The stick is then cut to the right length and dried. [8]
Powder coating: Coating is used mainly to produce cored incense of either larger coil (up to 1 meter in diameter) or cored stick forms. The supporting material, either thin bamboo or sandalwood slivers, are soaked in water or a thin water/glue mixture for a short time. The bundle of thin sticks are then evenly separated then dipped into a tray of incense powder, consisting of fragrance materials and occasionally a plant based binder. The dry incense powder is then tossed and piled over the stick while they are spread apart. The sticks are then gently rolled and packed to maintain roundness while repeatedly tossing more incense powder onto the sticks. Three to four layers of powder are coated onto the sticks, forming a 2 mm thick layer of incense material on the stick. The coated incense is then allowed to dry in open air. Additional coatings of incense mixture can be applied after each period of successive drying. Incense sticks that are burned in temples of Chinese folk religion produced in this fashion can have a thickness between 1 to 2 cm.[9] [10]
Compression: A damp powder is mechanically formed around a cored stick by compression similar to the way uncored sticks are formed. This form is becoming more commonly found due to the labor cost of producing powder coated or paste rolled sticks.
[edit] Burning incense
 
An Oriental Orthodox congregation in India processes outside its church with palm fronds on Palm Sunday with incense.For indirect burning incense, pieces of the incense are burned by placing it directly on top of the heat source or on a hot metal plate in the censer or thurible.[11]

In Japan a similar censer called a egoro (????) is used by several Buddhist sects. The egoro is usually made of brass with a long handle (?, e?)) and no chain. Instead of charcoal, makko powder is poured into a depression made in a bed of ash. The makko is lit and the incense mixture is burned on top. This method is known as Sonae-ko (Religious Burning).[12]

For direct burning incense, an end of the incense is held against a flame or a heat source until the incense begins to turn into ash at the burning end. Flames on the incense are fanned out and the incense is allowed to burn on its own.

[edit] Cultural variations
[edit] Chinese incense
Main article: Chinese incense culture
 
Incense at a temple in Beijing, ChinaThere are many forms of Chinese incense and its use and formulation theory is strongly tied to Traditional Chinese medicine and are still referred today as "fragrant medicines" (??). Use of incense in dynastic times was as much for promotion of bodily well-being as much as for veneration and religious ceremonies. As with Japanese incense, agarwood (??, chenxiang) and sandalwood (??, tanxiang) are the two most important ingredients in Chinese incense.

Calibrated incense sticks and powders were used in both secular and religious Chinese culture for keeping time.[13]

[edit] Indian incense
Main article: Incense of India
Indian incense can be divided into two categories: masala and charcoal.

Masala incenses are made by blending several solid scented ingredients into a paste and then rolling that paste onto a bamboo core stick. These incenses usually contain little or no liquid scents (which can evaporate or diminish over time).

Charcoal incenses are made by dipping an unscented "blank" (non-perfume stick) into a mixture of perfumes and/or essential oils. These blanks usually contain a binding resin that holds the sticks' ingredients together. Most charcoal incenses are black in color.

[edit] Jerusalem temple incense
Main article: Ketoret
Ketoret was the incense offered in the Temple in Jerusalem and is stated in the Book of Exodus as a mixture of stacte, onycha, galbanum and frankincense.

[edit] Tibetan incense
Main article: Tibetan incense
Tibetan incense refers to a common style of incense found in Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan. These incenses have a characteristic "earthy" scent to them. Ingredients vary from cinnamon, clove, and juniper, to kusum flower, ashvagandha, or sahi jeera.

Many Tibetan incenses are thought to have medicinal properties. Their recipes come from ancient Vedic texts that are based on even older Ayurvedic medical texts. The recipes have remained unchanged for centuries.

[edit] Japanese incense
Main article: Japanese incense
 
Stacks of incense at a temple in JapanAgarwood (?? Jinko) and sandalwood (?? Byakudan) are the two most important ingredients in Japanese incense. Agarwood is known as "Jinko" in Japan, which translates as "incense that sinks in water", due to the weight of the resin in the wood. Sandalwood is one of the most calming incense ingredients and lends itself well to meditation. It is also used in the Japanese tea ceremony. The most valued Sandalwood comes from Mysore in the state of Karnataka in India.

Another important ingredient in Japanese incense is kyara (??). Kyara is one kind of agarwood (Japanese incense companies divide agarwood into 6 categories depending on the region obtained and properties of the agarwood). Kyara is currently worth more than its weight in gold.

[edit] Uses of incense
Incense, being an article familiar to humanity since the dawn of civilization, has meant different things to the different peoples who have come to use it. Given the wide diversity of such peoples and their practices, it would be impossible to form an all-inclusive list of the ways in which incense has come to be used, since the methods and purposes of employment are as diverse and nuanced as those who have employed it.

[edit] Practical use of incense
 
Mosquito repellent used in China, India, Canada, Korea, and Japan are usually manufactured in coil form and burned in a similar manner as incenseIncense fragrances can be of such great strength that they obscure other, less desirable odors. This utility led to the use of incense in funerary ceremonies because the incense could smother the scent of decay. Another example of this use, as well as of religious use is the Botafumeiro, which, according to tradition, was installed to hide the scent of the many tired, unwashed pilgrims huddled together in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela.

The regular burning of direct combustion incense has been used for chronological measurement in incense clocks. These devices can range from a simple trail of incense material calibrated to burn in a specific time period, to elaborate and ornate instruments with bells or gongs, designed to involve and captivate several of the senses.[14]

Incense made from materials such as citronella can repel mosquitoes and other aggravating, distracting or pestilential insects. This use has been deployed in concert with religious uses by Zen Buddhists who claim that the incense that is part of their meditative practice is designed to keep bothersome insects from distracting the practitioner. Currently, more effective pyrethroid-based mosquito repellant incense is widely available in Asia.

Incense is also used often by people who smoke indoors, and do not want the scent to linger.

[edit] Aesthetic use of incense
Many people burn incense to appreciate its smell, without assigning any other specific significance to it, in the same way that the forgoing items can be produced or consumed solely for the contemplation or enjoyment of the refined sensory experience. This use is perhaps best exemplified in the kodo (???), where (frequently costly) raw incense materials such as agarwood are appreciated in a formalized setting.

[edit] Religious use of incense
 
Incense burning at a temple in TaipeiMain article: Religious use of incense
Use of incense in religion is prevalent in many cultures and may have their roots in the practical and aesthetic uses considering that many religions with not much else in common all use incense. One common motif is of incense as a form of sacrificial offering to a deity.

[edit] Incense and health
Incense smoke contains various contaminants including gaseous pollutants, such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [4–8], and absorbed toxic pollutants (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and toxic metals). The solid particles range between ~10 and 500 nm. The emission rate decreases in the row Indian sandalwood > Japanese aloeswood > Taiwanese aloeswood > smokeless sandalwood.[15] There is no question that those contaminants are carcinogenic and can cause respiratory diseases, but the risk of those depends on the exposure.

Research carried out in Taiwan in 2001 linked the burning of incense sticks to the slow accumulation of potential carcinogens in a poorly ventilated environment by measuring the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (including benzopyrene) within Buddhist temples. The study found gaseous aliphatic aldehydes, which are carcinogenic and mutagenic, in incense smoke.[16]

A survey of risk factors for lung cancer, also conducted in Taiwan, noted an inverse association between incense burning and adenocarcinoma of the lung, though the finding was not deemed significant.[17]

In contrast, a study by several Asian Cancer Research Centers showed: "No association was found between exposure to incense burning and respiratory symptoms like chronic cough, chronic sputum, chronic bronchitis, runny nose, wheezing, asthma, allergic rhinitis, or pneumonia among the three populations studied: i.e. primary school children, their non-smoking mothers, or a group of older non-smoking female controls. Incense burning did not affect lung cancer risk among non-smokers, but it significantly reduced risk among smokers, even after adjusting for lifetime smoking amount." However, the researchers qualified the findings by noting that incense burning in the studied population was associated with certain low-cancer-risk dietary habits, and concluded that "diet can be a significant confounder of epidemiological studies on air pollution and respiratory health."[18]

Frankincense has been shown to cause antidepressive behavior in mice. It activated the poorly understood ion channels in the brain to alleviate anxiety and depression.[19]